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Mussolini's conception/definition of fascism, as described in "The Nationalism Reader," provided a new framework for the political landscape in Europe. He wrote, "Fascism is action, and it is thought; action in which doctrine is immanent, and doctrine arising from a given system of historical forces in which it is inserted and working on them from within" (Mussolini qtd. in Dahbour and Ishay 199).

This statement reflects the core belief of fascism as an active, spiritual, and holistic approach to governance that encompasses all aspects of life. It also included a strong emphasis on the state's importance, the suppression of individualism for the greater good, and a spiritual connection to a higher law Mussolini's ideas, which would later resonate with and influence the development of Nazism in Germany.

Editors Opinion

During this unit, engaging with Mussolini's definition of fascism offers valuable insight into the roots of a political ideology that shaped Europe during the 20th century. Understanding the foundations of fascism and its impact on the rise of Nazism in Germany helps to contextualize the historical events leading up to World War II and the Holocaust.

Moreover, by examining the political, social, and ideological factors that contributed to the rise of fascism, not only by enrolling and taking this course but taking it a step further uniting society as a whole; we can better comprehend the challenges societies faced during this tumultuous period and learn from history to recognize the dangers of extremist ideologies, so history does not repeat itself.

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The Nuremberg Laws were enacted in 1935 by the Nazi regime and aimed at marginalizing Jews and other racial minorities. Both groups were subjected to "social death" due to these laws. This "social death" meant that targeted individuals were systematically excluded from participating in the social, cultural, and economic life of their communities.

For example, Jews were only allowed to give their babies names from a predetermined list of approved Jewish names, further isolating them from the broader society. The boycott of Jewish businesses also played a significant role in crippling their economic livelihoods and further marginalizing them. These measures contributed to the "social death" of Jews and other minorities by systematically excluding them from participating in their communities' social, cultural, and economic life.

In the words of Robert Gellately in ‘Backing Hitler,’ "The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, as it was called, outlawed new marriages between Jews and non-Jews; forbade extramarital sexual relations between them; made it illegal for Jews to employ non-Jewish women under 45 as servants; and illegal for Jews to raise the German flag"(Gellately 56). These measures, along with other Nuremberg Laws, aimed to establish a racial hierarchy where Jews and other racial minorities were treated as inferior.

In addition, Hitler initially considered a broader version of these laws that would have targeted more people of mixed race but decided against it due to public opinion. The laws enacted, however, still had a significant impact on the lives of Jews and other racial minorities.

Editor's Opinion:

The Nuremberg Laws were a disturbing example of how racism and antisemitism can be institutionalized and treated as the ‘norm.’ I believe it's essential to learn about and discuss these historical events to prevent such oppressive measures from happening again. Studying the Nuremberg Laws also demonstrates the role that legislation can play in shaping societal attitudes and contributing to the marginalization of certain groups.

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The Battle of Cable Street is an example of grassroots resistance against the rise of fascism in the 1930s. This event occurred when fascist ideologies were gaining momentum across Europe, such as Mussolini's rise to power in Italy as discussed in the previous event. The diverse group of anti-fascist protesters, up to 200,000, included Jewish residents, Irish dock workers and laborers, Communists, and Labour Party members. The demonstrators' successful effort to force Mosley and the BUF to turn back shows the power of collective action against oppressive ideologies.

Their chant, "No Pasarán! They Shall Not Pass!"—borrowed from Spain's anti-fascist movement—symbolized their determination to stand up against the BUF's hateful rhetoric, which targeted Jews and Communists ("Standing up to Hatred on Cable Street"). This event demonstrates how communities could unite in the face of the growing fascist threat and fight to protect their values and way of life.

Editor's Opinion:

I find the Battle of Cable Street to be a powerful illustration of the potential for ordinary people to make a stand against hateful ideologies. This event highlights the importance of community solidarity and collective action in the face of oppressive forces, such as the BUF's brand of fascism. By understanding how communities have successfully resisted the rise of fascism in the past, we can better equip ourselves to recognize and confront similar threats in the present and future.

More information Kristallnacht, or the "Night of Broken Glass," marked a pivotal moment in escalating anti-Semitic violence and persecution in Nazi Germany. The state-sponsored riots resulted in the loss of Jewish lives, the devastation of their property, and the tacit approval of these actions by the government. Propaganda fueled the violence, ultimately leading to the arrest of 30,000 Jews who were then unjustly blamed for the riots and sent to concentration camps.

According to the Cambridge Dictionary of Judaism and Jewish Culture, "Nazi leaders were in agreement when it came to blaming Jews for the violence, and they required Germany’s Jewish community to pay 1 billion Reichsmarks ($401 million) for the murder of vom Rath and the damages caused by the riot" (Baskin 359). Clearly, the Nazi regime intenfully shifted the blame for the violence and destruction onto the very people they were persecuting—the Jews. Nazi leaders further dehumanized and marginalized the Jewish population. This financial burden functioned as a form of collective punishment, making them even more vulnerable to future persecution.

In addition, “Hitler told the Reichstag that if Jewish financiers 'once again' plunged Europe into war, the result would not be the bolshevization of the world, but the 'annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe'(Baskin 359). The excerpt reveals Hitler's manipulation of the preconceived notion that Jews were responsible for instigating violence to justify his anti-Semitic policies. By claiming that Jewish financiers were capable of plunging Europe into war, he sought to strengthen the belief that Jews were a danger to society.

Editor's Opinion:

Kristallnacht is a dark chapter in history that illustrates the devastating impact of racism, antisemitism, and state-sponsored persecution. As someone who just learned of this event in lecture, I believe it is crucial for everyone to understand the events surrounding Kristallnacht to recognize the dangers of allowing such hatred to fester unchecked in society. By studying this event, we can work towards fostering a more inclusive, tolerant, and empathetic world. The false blame placed on Jews for instigating the violence is a stark reminder of how propaganda can manipulate public opinion and justify atrocities against innocent people.

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Hitler began to put the German economy on a war footing, devoting significant resources to rearmament and creating new jobs. Britain and France made alliances with Poland, pledging to go to war if Poland was attacked. This set the stage for World War II's outbreak following Poland's invasion.

The remark states, "According to Nazi racial ideology, the effects of which occupied Poland had already experienced since 1939, Slavic peoples were inferior to Germanics and suited primarily for physical labor. From the start, the war against the Soviet Union was planned as a war of extermination (Doc. 5.11) in which the traditional rules of warfare were to be ignored. Jews and Communist officials were targeted for mass murder in plans drawn up before the attack” (Stackelberg and Winkle 117).

The excerpt highlights how the Nazi racial ideology viewed Slavic peoples as inferior to Germanics, considering them primarily suited for physical labor. The invasion of Poland and the subsequent war against the Soviet Union, fueled by these ideologies, set the stage for a global conflict. Countries like Britain and France were compelled to defend Poland and their own interests against the growing threat of the Nazis.

Other factors that played a role in the lead-up to World War II happened in the USSR, when Stalin had established himself as the sole leader by 1928 and embarked on a top-down program of industrialization and collectivization. Nazi Germany occupied France in July 1940, leading to the rounding up of Jews living freely in unoccupied France. The Blitz, which lasted from September 1940 to May 1941, saw the deaths of 40,000 Britons. These events contributed to the escalation of the c onflict and the spread of racism and antisemitism across Europe.

Editor's Opinion:

The invasion of Poland resulted in the Polish population's displacement and exploitation and set off a chain of events that led to a global conflict marked by racism, antisemitism, and unprecedented violence. When history is hoved under the rug, we forget who it imapcted and why it cannot happen again. It is essential to remember these events and their consequences on the world to prevent similar tragedies from occurring in the future.

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In the excerpt, the author states: "But in the spring and early summer of 1944, Auschwitz was stretched to capacity and beyond by the most horrific and frenzied killing spree the camp would ever see. The Jews who were to suffer and die during this terrible time came almost exclusively from one country— Hungary" (Rees 219).

The quote emphasizes the human cost of political decisions and the terrifying efficiency with which the Nazis carried out their genocidal plans. The extreme nature of the mass killings at Auschwitz during the spring and early summer of 1944 was horrific. The camp was pushed beyond its capacity as Hungarian Jews were targeted and sent to the death camp. The large influx of Hungarian Jews resulted from the complex political maneuverings of Hungary, which ultimately chose to ally itself with the Axis powers, hoping to benefit from territorial gains and the perceived likelihood of a Nazi victory.

Editor's Opinion:

Studying the construction and operation of Auschwitz and other death camps in this course helps us confront the unimaginable horrors that took place during the Holocaust. By examining the political, social, and logistical factors that contributed to the establishment of these camps, we can better understand the depths of human cruelty and the importance of standing against hatred and prejudice. As students, as a human, we must learn from history to ensure that such atrocities never happen again.

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More information: The Holocaust was a horrific event in history, where millions of Jews and other minority groups were systematically persecuted and killed by the Nazis. The policy shift from expelling Jews to exterminating them, the construction of Jewish ghettos, and the implementation of mass killing methods like gas chambers are only a few of the primary tactics used. One of the most significant acts of resistance was the Warsaw Ghetto uprising in April-May 1943, where Jews fought back against the Nazis, though ultimately unsuccessful.”The Warsaw ghetto - was the largest in Nazi-occupied Europe. [R]esistance organizations in the Warsaw ghetto staged an uprising against deportations, which resulted in a six-week battle with the German authorities”(Baskin 238).

In his book "Voices from the Warsaw Ghetto: Writing Our History," David G. Roskies explains Emanuel Ringelblum's archival project aimed to combat General Jürgen Stroop's version of events, who had sent a leather-bound report titled "The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is no more!" to Heinrich Himmler. This report detailed the suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising and the destruction of the ghetto. Ringelblum, a historian and social activist, wanted to ensure that the victims of the Holocaust had the opportunity to tell their own stories in their own voices.

Roskies explains the significance of Ringelblum's work: "Of all these people, only a few survived. Of all the documentation, however, 1,693 items comprising 35,000 pages were recovered from the Ringelblum Archive alone. So it is through paper that today one can conjure up the people anew—through all manner of minutes, memoranda, diaries, memoirs, last letters, essays, poems, songs, jokes, novels, stories, plays, questionnaires, charts, scholarly treatises, sermons, classroom compositions, diplomas, proclamations, posters, photographs, drawings, and paintings" (Roskies 8).

Ringelblum brought together a diverse team of individuals, including chroniclers, statisticians, economists, social scientists, activists, medical doctors, reporters, poets, photographers, and graphic artists, to document the collective record of a civilization responding to its own destruction. The archival material and documents buried by the Jews during the Warsaw Ghetto uprising ensured that their life stories would be preserved and told, offering an alternative narrative to that of General Jürgen Stroop. This act further emphasizes the determination of the Jewish people to resist their oppressors and leave a lasting record of their struggle.

Editor's Opinion:

As someone who once believed this false narrative (pertaining to the original T or F question), it is vital to acknowledge and honor the diverse forms of resistance displayed by Jews during the Holocaust, such as the Warsaw Ghetto uprising (but their are many other events). The uprising serves as a powerful reminder of the strength, determination, and courage of the Jewish people, even when faced with the unimaginable atrocities committed by the Nazis. A comprehensive study of the Holocaust must include an examination of this resistance to gain a more accurate and nuanced understanding of the Jewish experience during this dark period in history. Preserving their history further highlights the importance of remembering and honoring their struggle.

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Isaac Fadoyebo's story provides a unique perspective on the experiences of African soldiers during World War II. In, African Voices of the Global Past : 1500 to the Present Trevor R. Getz mentions that "Nigerians donated money and labor toward prosecuting the wars, which originated outside the continent. And, more generally, Africa hosted some of the theaters of wars and bore the hardship accentuated by wartime policies" (Getz). This remark illuminates that African nations, like Nigeria, played a significant role in supporting the Allied war effort, not only by providing soldiers but also through financial and logistical contributions. Despite the war originating outside their continent, Africans were deeply affected by the conflict and its consequences.

In addition, Fadoyebo describes the harrowing experience of being wounded in battle and witnessing the death of his comrade, Essien. He states, "I would have thought that I had developed supernatural powers were it not that two bullets had already been lodged in my body" (Fadoyebo). Fadoyebo’s comment emphasizes the dangerous and life-threatening conditions that African soldiers faced during the war. Fadoyebo's story highlights the bravery and sacrifice of black soldiers who fought alongside their American and British counterparts, showing that the war effort was a truly global.

Editor's opinion:

Isaac Fadoyebo's story is a powerful reminder of the diverse and often (very) overlooked contributions made by African soldiers during World War II. As a student but also decesdant of African ancestors, understanding these stories enriches my knowledge of the war and helps me appreciate the global nature of the conflict. It is essential to recognize and honor the sacrifices made by soldiers like Fadoyebo, who risked their lives in a war that originated outside their continent.

The inclusion of the fact that African nations actively contributed to the war effort, both in terms of human resources and financial support, underscores the interconnectedness of the world during this period and demonstrates the far-reaching impact of World War II.

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The Thiaroye massacre remains a significant event in the collective memory of West Africans. The massacre resulted in 24 infantrymen killed, eleven dead as a result of their injuries, 35 wounded, and 45 imprisoned mutineers. The massacre revealed the darker side of French colonial rule and the unwillingness of French authorities to treat African soldiers with the same respect and recognition as their French counterparts.

As Sabrina Parent says in her devoted chapter “(Re) Writing the Massacre of Thiaroye”, African infantrymen who had fought alongside the French against the Nazis were ordered to r eturn to their remote villages. They protested and captured General Dagnan, demanding the monetary compensation they were owed. However, the French colonial authorities dismissed their claims, fearing a broader "black uprising" and wanting to make Thiaroye an example.

An officer in charge stated that the soldiers were dismissed because they, "by arrogance, vanity or jealousy, [dared to demand] a status identical to the French". Obviously, the French military authorities were not ready to cope with the demands for égalité coming from colonial subjects” (Parent 23). The unwillingness of the French authorities to acknowledge the equality and contributions of the African soldiers. Further in the text Parent quotes historian Bénot who suggest that Thiaroye was meant to be an example of "preventive repression," showing the extent to which the French sought to suppress any potential uprising.

To this day the Thiaroye massacre remains largely absent from French artistic representations and cultural discourse, reflecting the darker side of French colonial history that remains unaddressed.By examining these interpretations, we can better understand the historical context and the motivations behind the event.

Editors Opinion

The Thiaroye massacre is a powerful example of Michel-Rolph Trouillot's concept of "silencing the past." For many years, the French cultural discourse remained silent on the event. It took the efforts of historians, journalists, and West African artists to bring attention to this dark episode in history. By revisiting the Thiaroye massacre, we can begin to challenge the dominant narratives that have long marginalized or excluded the voices of those who suffered under colonial rule.

Trouillot's book Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History reminds us that "power does not enter the story once and for all, but at different times and from different angles" (Trouillot 120). By examining the Thiaroye massacre through the lens of power dynamics, we can better understand how the French colonial authorities sought to suppress dissent and maintain control over their subjects.

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In his autobiography titled “Black German” (and translated by Eve Rosenhaft) Theodor Michael, the son of a Cameroonian Father and German Mother, recounts his experience living in Nazi Germany as a Black German: "I spoke only German and once again there was no place where I fit in. Other 'countrymen' who were compelled to do forced labor had the same experience. Even the Nazis didn’t have a pigeonhole for us" (Michael and Rosenhaft 81). He describes his unique challenges as a Black German, being ostracized and discriminated against due to his race and nationality.

The lives of Black people in Germany and Europe during the Nazi era were characterized by racial discrimination, persecution, and marginalization. Michale proceeds to provide insight into the broader experience of Black people in Germany during this time: "In every business that employed foreign workers there was an Ausländerbetreuer, an official with special responsibility for supervising them. In the factory we had to punch the clock, and the foreign workers’ time cards were a different color from those of the German workers. So the Ausländerbetreuer could see at a glance if a card was missing" (Michael and Rosenhaft 82).

This utterance stresses the strict surveillance and control mechanisms in place for foreign workers, which were also applied to Black people living in Germany. Many Black individuals faced forced labor, deportation, or internment in concentration camps. In addition to the systemic discrimination from the Nazi egime, they also faced social isolation and ostracization, as they did not fit into any clear category of nationality or race.

Editor's opinion section:

Studying Theodor Michael's life in our course provides valuable insights into the experiences of marginalized groups during World War II. It serves as a powerful reminder that racial discrimination and persecution were not limited to Jews and other targeted populations but extended to individuals like Michael, who did not fit neatly into any predefined racial category. As a student, I am deeply moved by his resilience and determination to survive in the face of adversity. His story serves as a testament to the strength of the human spirit and emphasizes the importance of studying diverse perspectives when examining historical events such as World War II and the Holocaust.